Types of Computers

1. Analog Computer
This computer works on the continous changing values such as temporature, pressure, speed etc. Thermometer, Speedometer are the example of analog devices. Presfley is an example of Analog computer.

2. Digital Computer
It operates on digital of discrete data such as zero and data. This computer usually higher accuracy, storage capacity then analog computers Laptop,Desktop PCare the examples of digital computers.

3. Hybrid Computers
It is the combination of analog and digital computers. It can work on both data and can convert analog data into digital and vice-versa. It is a special purpose computers. It is mainly used for controlling automated industry, diagnosis in hospital etc.

4. Super computers
It is the most fastest and expensive computer. It is a special purpose computer. It is mainly use for controlling automated industry,rocket launching system, controlling satelites and scientific researches. The examples of super computer are CRAY, PARAM, ANURAG etc.

5. Main frame computer
It is the largest computers on the basis of size. It occupies around 1,000 squares feet area. It occupies more than 100 termonals. It is mainly use for storing huge amount of data. IBM 1401 was the first computer brought to Nepal. The different development of mainframe are IBM,HCL, DEC etc.

6. Mini computer
It is the smaller version of mainframe computer. It occupies area of around 100 square feet and has the terminals less than 100. It also use for data storage in medium sized organization. Different developers of mini computers are HP,IBM, NCL,etc.

7. Micro computers
It is a smallest computer on the base of size. It is also the cheapest, slowest and has a least storage capacity, It is diveloped for a single user. So it is also called Personal Computer(Pc). The processor used by micro computer is micrfo processor. Micro computer can be portable and non portable. Portable micro

Central Processing Unit(CPU)

CPU is responsible for processing the inputs as well as for controlling the different hardware, software components and their activities. CPU of micro computer is known as micro processor. Microprocessor is made by silicon and it contains VLSI circuit, CPU contains three sub components.
i) ALU( Arithmetic and Logical Unit)
It performs arithmetical and logical operations. According to the instructions from control unit arithmetic operation includes +-*/mod(%),^ etc and the logical operation includes <,> <=, >= 1=or <> and,or,not etc. This unit is responsible for processing or executing or calculating the inputs for generating the outputs.


ii) CU(Controls Unit)
It is the main control center of the computer. It performs task of controlling all the components including hardware and software and their activities uses control signal for controlling all the task in the computer is performed according to the instruction from control unit.

iii) Set of registers:-
A set of registers is a small and temporary memory location present in cpu. CPU contains multiple numbers of registers It actually the holds the memory address of the data and instructions. The different registers used are MAR, IR, PC,I/p register , AR etc.

Magnetic Memory

Magnetic memory uses properties of magnetic for storing data. It is the first technology used for storing data. Many magnetic memories are not used at present. However hard disk is still the most popular storage device. It is one of the magnetic memory. The storing surface of magnetic memory is made by metal or plastic. This surface is coated by magnetic oxide. According data storing surface magnetic memory can be magnetic disk, magnetic tape and magnetic drum.

I) Magnetic drum:- It was used in 1st and 2nd generation of computers. It used cylindrical drum made by metal.l The outer side of the drum used for storing data. The srorage capacity of this device was in the range of few KB to MB.

II) Magnetic Tape:- magnetic tape contents this plastic ribbon coated by magnetic oxide. Data stored one side of ribbon. It is a sequencial access memory so the average data read write speed will be slower. It is highly reliable so ti is mainly use for storing backup, audiovidio file etc. It requireds magnetic tape drive for its readwrite operation. It is use in different storage capacity like 100MB, 250MB, 512MB,1GB,2GB,4GB,10GB,10GB and 20GB. The width of ribbon also varies like one inch, 1/2 inch, 1/4 inch,8mm, 4mm. The typical lenth of magnetic tape is 2400 feet.

III) Magnetic disk:- Magnetic diskk contents multiple circular disk made by metal or plastic. The circular disk rotates during readwrite process. The circular disk is divided into circular areas having common centre. This circular areas is known as track. Tracks are further divided into small area known as sector., Data are stored in the sectors. Some of the magnetic disk memories used are:-
Floppy disk
Hard disk
Winchester disk
Zip disk
Jazz disk
Super disk

Cache Memory

It is a small high speed and expensive memory present in between RAM and EPU.
The working speed of CPU is increasing day by day but the speed of its of its data provider(RAM) has fnot increased significantly. Cache is used in between these two devices to balance their speed and increased overall speed.
When CPU requireds any data or instruction, it searches them in the cache and used from the cache. its searches in the RAM. If the required contains are not available in the cash. The condition in which CPU finds data in the cache is known as hit and reverse condition is know as miss. The ratio of hit by miss impresent computer is arround 9:1.
Cache stores most frequently requirds data and instructions different levels of cache like L1,L2 and L3 are defined qand use to increase the processing speed. L1(level1) stores most frequently required data, L2(level two)f stores comparitevely less frequently used data and so on. When CPU frequireds any data its for searches the data in L1 cache then in L2 if not found L1 and similarly L3 and RAM.

Dimensions of communication

The dimension of communication relates to the structures procedures and modalities applied for the internal communication. Organizational communication and its a system is guided by hierarchy status and the authority delegated to the employees in multiple level. So, it merely refers to the system of communication that takes place between senior management,middle level management and lower level management. This three different levels of management are co ordinates through three different intersecting lines of communication such as vertical, horizontal and diagonal etc. These intersections of communication lines formulate four major dimensions of organizational.
Four major dimensions of organizational commjunication
a) Down stream commuinication
b) Upstream communication
c) Horizontal communication
d) Crosswise communication


Down Stram communication
It refers to the procedure of organizational communication controll by senior as well as executive management in matters of policy making and planning.In addition,the executive level management remain quit equtomous in every organizational activities without taking hold of middle and lower level management. For this downstream communication is consider to be more autocratic and dectatorial in nature. Followings are the basic features fo downstream communication.
- autocratic leadership
- Unilateral communication structure
- Cloedoor policy
_ Lack of empowerment and participations of sub-ordinate management
_ Sub-ordinate management
- Registens to compliance
- Filtering and distortion
- Group conflicts and managerial hazards


Merits
1. Effective controlling and discipline
2. Monetering evaluiation of activities
3. Strict chain of command and progress analysis
4. Speedy decisions and problem solving
5. Transparency and fairness in activities



Upstream communication
It idealises the form of communication in which sub-ordinate management is granted with freedom to communicate and actively involve in organizational acivity.This approach of communication emerged during 1950s as a policy of liberal management.Consequently,the lower level management is empowerment for effective planning,decision making and implementaion. This is the reason why upstream communication is consider to ve more domocratic and liberal in managerial approach.
The relationship between senior and sub-ordinate management jis facilitated and co-ordinated by a mediator called 'ombuds person'. An ombuds person is an individual or team which authorized to coordinate relation as well as work further welfare of sub-ordinates and organization. Thus followings are the major roles of ombuds persons.
1. Facilitation between senior and subordinate management.
2. Create publicity and awareness
3. Bridging and negotiating the distance between top and middle level management.
4. Evaluation,update and monitor the job performance.
5. Controlling and managing the sub-ordinate group.
6. Team co-ordination and leadership.
7. Rapport building,reporting and upgrading senior management.



Horizontal Communication
It refers to a linear communicative relationship exclusively limited among the similar level or groups of management. Popularly known as straight line communication. It relates to the communication between the employees holding similare status, position and hierarchy in organization structure. In this regard horizontal communication builds into uniformity and homogenity among the senior co-workers and sub-ordinate level working groups. Following are the major highlights of horizontal communication.

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concepts of communication

Communication is the most used skill in almost every job. How you communicate your accomplishments to others is a reflection of the quality of your work. Sure, you must know how to do you tasks to accomplish great results, but that is only a portion o professional success. Good communication skills are required to report your results to others, persuade colleagues to take action, and (most importantly at review time) sell your success to management.
Communication is essential to building trust and teamwork among employees. To become a successful leader, you must have great team. Just look at Michelangelo.He didn't paint the Sistine Chapel by himself, but with the help of his team. It is considered one of the best works in history. It's all about the team.
Good Communication skills are vital for your success on the job. They make the difference in how well your writing and spelling are perceived by others( if you can't explain it, maybe you don't know it ), in your confidence in speaking to customers or giving presentations( which helps your company bring in revenue), and in your ability to be productive and efficient when working in a team ( takes advantages of collective knowledge and shared resources).
Good communication is necessary in order or continental apply research findings and improve business operations.
Finally we can say that business communication is process of information sharing each other, to subordinate level and to top level management. It is a process of information sharing and to communicate in own personal language.

Personal communication

Not all the communication that occurs in business is operational. In fact, much of it is without apparent purpose as far as the operating plan of the business is concerned. This type of communication is personal. Do not make the mistake of underestimating its importance. Personal communication helps make and sustain the relationships upon which business depends.
Personal communication is the exchange of information and feelings in which we human beings engage whenever we come together. We are social animals. We have a need to communicate, and we will communicate even when we have little or nothing to say. YOU may have noticed that even total strangers are likely to communicate when they are placed together, as on an airplane flight, in a workplace, and it is a part of the communication activity of any business. Although not an obvious part of the business's plan of operation. Personal communication can have a significant effect on the success of that plan. This effect is a result of the influence that personal communication can have on the attitudes of the employees and those with whom they communicate.
The employees' attitudes toward the business, each other, and their assignments directly affect their productivity. And the nature of conversation in a work situation affects attitudes. In a work situati9n where heated words and flaming tempers are often present, the employees are not likely to give their best efforts to their jobs. Likewise, a frolicking, jovial work situation can undermine business goals. Wise managers cultivate the optimum balance between employees' focus on job related tasks and their personal selves to work. They also know that chat around the water cooler or in the break room encourages a team attitudes and can often be the medium in which actual business issues get discussed
Even communication that is largely internal operational will often include personal elements that relieve the tedium of daily routine and enable employees to build include personal remarks at at some point. Sometimes you may find yourself writing a wholly personal message to a client, as when he or she has won a major award or experienced a loss of some kind. Other times, you may compose an external operational message that also includes an brief personal not, perhaps thanking a client for a pleasant lunch of referring to a personal matter that came up in the course of a business meeting . Personal communication on the job is inevitable. When wisely undertaken, it makes business more successor,pleasant, and fulfilling.

Business communication process

Although we may view the communication of a business as a network of information flow, we must keep in mind that a business organization consists of people and that communication with those inside and outside the organization occurs among people. It is also harmful to bear in mind that, by and large, each act of a business communication is designed to achieve particular goal. The following discussion highlights the main steps in tackling business communication problems.
1. Senses a communication need
2. Defines the problems
3. Searches for the possible solution
4. Selects a course of action
5. Composes the message
6. Delivers the message

You’ll notice that the two communicators are labeled simply “communicator 1” and “Communicators 2,” instead of “Sender” and “Receiver” or “communicator” and “Audience.” Certainly any communication event begins with someone deciding that communication is needed and initiating that communication, with an intended “receiver” (a popular tern in speech communication) or audience”( the preferred term in composition) on the other end. But in many situations, especially those involving real time conversation, the two parties work together to reach a mutual understanding.a

The symbols for communicating are im;perfect, and so are our best communication efforts:

We often take for granted that the language we use has dependable, stable meanings. But there is no intrinsic relationship between any symbols, including words, and what they are being used to represent. As the semanticist Alfred Korzybski wrote, “The map is not the territory.” Instead, the connection between words and reality depends on social convention. If enough people agree that a word will have a certain meaning. Then it will until new social influences cause the meaning to change. But even at their most stable, words are crude substitutes for the real thing.
The word family can stand for many different kinds of human connections; Cultural differences can cause drastic variations in terminology and the assumed meanings of words. Even more problematic is that two people can use the same word but mean entirely different things. For example, what does the word liberal mean? Or fairness? How about teamwork or boss? The meanings with which people fill these verbal slots can vary enormously in connotation and even denotations. When communicators are unbeknown st to themselves using the same term but with very different meanings, they are experiencing a form of ms communication known as “bypassing.” Being alert to the slippery nature of the linkage between words and things can help you avoid such communication problems.
Managing the tenuous connection between symbols and what they represent is not your only challenge, however. Virtually every significant communication task that you will face will involve assessing a unique configuration of factors that requires at least a somewhat unique solution. This means that there is no one right answer to a communication problem. Different people will handle different cases somewhat differently, depending on who they are, how they interpret the situation, and who they imagine their recipients to be.

Importance of communication skills

Because communication is so important in business, businesses want and need people with good communication skills. Evidence of the important of communication in businesses found in numerous surveys of executives, recruiters and academicians. Without exception these surveys have found that communication marks at all near the top of the business skills needed for success.
Typical of this surveys is one by Robert half International of the thousand largest employers in the united states. According to 96% of the executive surveys, today's employees must have good communication skills to advance professionally. A study of skills and competencies needed by accountants strongly supports the valley of writing, speaking and listening. Similarly results where found in an on published made by the Jones Graduate School of management , Rice University in 2000. The deans of the 90 program mes surveyed reported that they see communication as one of the greatest teaching priorities of an MBA program's. Most recently NFI research, a private organization that regularly surveys over 2000 executives and senior managers, found that 94 % of the members “ rank ‘communicating wells’ is the most important skill for them to succeed today and tomorrow”. These words to job seekers in the wall street journal lend additional support to the importance of communication: “To stand out from the competition, you must demonstrate the unwritten requirements that are now most in demand: leadership at communication skills.

Commucication is about information and relationships

A common mistake that inexperienced business communicators make is to assume that the point of communicating is solely to transfer information. Getting important information from one place to another is critical to the success of any business or organization, and much of this book is about getting your message across as clearly as possible. But as we have said, the creation and maintenance of positive human relations is also essential to successful business communication. Every act of communication carries with it an implied view of the communicators’ relationship. When planning and crafting your messages, be carried not to neglect this important dimension, which can make or break you communication efforts for ways to child goodwill between yourself and your audience.
Because communication always involves human relations, it also involves ethics. Each message is an effort to engage other persons, shape their attitudes, and influence their behavior. In the realm of business , it is also an occasion to help, hinder, or otherwise affect your organization and those whose welfare depends upon it. Words and other symbols have the power to achieve positive or negative effects. You have an obligation to avoid deception, to enable people to make informed decisions, and to consider all the likely effects of your messages on others.s

Business communication as problem Solving

As you look ahead to all the business communication tasks you may face, it can help to think about business communication as a problem solving activity. Researchers in many field management, medicine, writing, psychology, and others have study problem solving. In general, they define problem as simply “a gap between where always something negative: it can be an opportunity to improve a situation or do things in a better way. As a goal focused enterprise, business is all about solving problems, and so, therefore, is business communication.
The problem solving literature divides problems into two main types? Well defined and ill defined. The form can be solved by following a formula, such as when you are computing how much money is left in your department’s budget . But most real world problems, including business communication problems, cannot be solved this way. They do not come to us in neat packages with the path to the best solution clearly implied. Instead, they require research, analysis, creativity and judgment. One reason why this is the case in business communication is that, as in any communication situation, people are involve and people are both complex and unique but the business context itself is often complex, presenting you with multiple options for handling any given situation for example, if a customer has complain, what will you do about it? Nothing? Apologize? Imply that the customer was at fault? Give a conciliatory discount? Refuse to adjust the bill? Even a “simple” problem like this one requires thinking through the likely short and long term effect of several possible solution.
Solving ill-defined problems involve combining existing resources with innovation and good judgment. Although this book presents basic plans for several common types of business. Communication messages, you will not able to solve particular communication problems by just filling in the blanks of this plans. The plans can be thought of as heuristics-“rules of thumb” that keep you from reinventing the while with is new problem. But the plans do not tell you all need to do to solve each unique communication problem. You must decide how adopt each plan to the given situation.
What this means is that successful business communication is both more challenging and more exciting then you may have thought. You will need to draw un your own powers of interpretation and to decision making to succeed with your human communication partners.

Contexts for Communication

Certain features of the communication situatin are already in place as the communicaters in our model being to communicate.
The larger context includes the general business economic climate, the language, values and customes in the surrounding culture and the historical moments in which the communication is taking place. Think about how this contexts might influence communication. For example if the countries economy or a particular industry is flourishing, a communicaters message and recipitent’s response may well be defined different they would be in an economic slump. The socio cultural context also affects how the communicate. Whether they are communicating in the context of usurban culture, for instans or the culture of a particular rejoin or another country, or whatever they are or whether communicating across cultures, there communicatin choice is will be affected. The particular historical context of there communication can also be a factor. Consider how the terrorist attracts of 9/11 brought to the fore language about religion, war and patriotism. Such shifts in language and values can tickle down into daily acts of communication. The skillful communicator is sensitive to these larger contexts, which always exert an influence and to some extent, are always changing.
The relationship of the communicators also forms an important context for communication. Certainly, communication is about moving information from point A to point B, but it also about interaction between human beings. Yours first correspondence with someone begins a relationship in between the two of you, whether as individuals, people in certain roles or both. All future messages between you will need to take this relationship into account.
The communicators particular contexts exert perhaps the strongest influence on the act of the communication. These interrelated contests can be:
1. Organizational contexts
2. Professional contexts
3. Personal contexts

Internal-Operational Communication

The work related communicating that  a business does with people and groups outside the business is external operational communication. This is the business's comunication with its publics suppliers, service companies, customers, government agencies, the general public, and others.
    External operatinal communication includes all of the business's efforts at direct selling: salespeople's "spiels," descriptive brochures, telephone callbacks, follow up service calls, and the like. It also includes the advertising the business does to retain and generate new customers. Radio and television message, newspaper and magazine advertising, website advertising, product placement, and point of purchase display material abviously play a rle in the  business does to improve its public relations, whether through planned publicity of formal and informal cotacts between company representatives and the outside world In fact, every act of communicaton with an external audience can be regarded as public relations message, conveying  a certain image of the company. For this reason, all such acts should be undertaken with careful attention to both content and tone.
   The importance of external operational communication to a business hardly requires supporting comment. Because the success of a business depends on its ability to satisfy customers' needs, it must communicate effectively with those customers. But businesses also depend on each othe in the production and distribution of goods and services. Coordinating withe contractors, consultants, and suppliers also requires skillful communication. In addition, every business must communicate to some extent with government agencies, such as the Internal Revenue Service, the Scurities and Exchange Commission, or the Environmental Protection Agency. Like internal communication, external communication is vital to business success.

External-Operational Communication

The work-related communicating that a business does with people and groups outside the business is external-operational communication. This is the business's communication with its publics-suppliers, service companies, customers, government agencies, the general public, and other.
      External-operational communication includes all of the business's efforts at direct selling: salespeople's "spiels," descriptive brochures, telephone callbacks, follow-up service calls, and the like. It also includes the advertising the business does to retain and generate new customers. Radio and television messages, newspaper and magazine advertising, website advertising, product placement, and point-of-purchase display material obviously play a role in the business's plan to achieve its work objective. Also in this catergory is all that a business does to improve its public relations, whether through planned publicity of formal and informal contacts between company representatives and the outside world.In fact, every act of communicaton with an external audience can be regarded as a public-relations maessage, conveying a certain image fo the company. For this reason, all such acts should be undertaken with careful attention to both content and tone.
    |The importance of external-operational communication to a business harldlu requires suporting comment. \Because the success of a business depends on its ability to satisfy customers' needs, it must communicate effectively with those customers.
    But business also depend on each other in the production and distribution of goods and services. Coordination with contractors, consultants, and suppliers also requires skillful communication. In addition, every business must communicate to some extent with government agencies, such as the Internal Revenue Services, the Exchange Communication is vital to business success.