1. Analog Computer
This computer works on the continous changing values such as temporature, pressure, speed etc. Thermometer, Speedometer are the example of analog devices. Presfley is an example of Analog computer.
2. Digital Computer
It operates on digital of discrete data such as zero and data. This computer usually higher accuracy, storage capacity then analog computers Laptop,Desktop PCare the examples of digital computers.
3. Hybrid Computers
It is the combination of analog and digital computers. It can work on both data and can convert analog data into digital and vice-versa. It is a special purpose computers. It is mainly used for controlling automated industry, diagnosis in hospital etc.
4. Super computers
It is the most fastest and expensive computer. It is a special purpose computer. It is mainly use for controlling automated industry,rocket launching system, controlling satelites and scientific researches. The examples of super computer are CRAY, PARAM, ANURAG etc.
5. Main frame computer
It is the largest computers on the basis of size. It occupies around 1,000 squares feet area. It occupies more than 100 termonals. It is mainly use for storing huge amount of data. IBM 1401 was the first computer brought to Nepal. The different development of mainframe are IBM,HCL, DEC etc.
6. Mini computer
It is the smaller version of mainframe computer. It occupies area of around 100 square feet and has the terminals less than 100. It also use for data storage in medium sized organization. Different developers of mini computers are HP,IBM, NCL,etc.
7. Micro computers
It is a smallest computer on the base of size. It is also the cheapest, slowest and has a least storage capacity, It is diveloped for a single user. So it is also called Personal Computer(Pc). The processor used by micro computer is micrfo processor. Micro computer can be portable and non portable. Portable micro
Thursday, January 20, 2011
Central Processing Unit(CPU)
CPU is responsible for processing the inputs as well as for controlling the different hardware, software components and their activities. CPU of micro computer is known as micro processor. Microprocessor is made by silicon and it contains VLSI circuit, CPU contains three sub components.
i) ALU( Arithmetic and Logical Unit)
It performs arithmetical and logical operations. According to the instructions from control unit arithmetic operation includes +-*/mod(%),^ etc and the logical operation includes <,> <=, >= 1=or <> and,or,not etc. This unit is responsible for processing or executing or calculating the inputs for generating the outputs.
ii) CU(Controls Unit)
It is the main control center of the computer. It performs task of controlling all the components including hardware and software and their activities uses control signal for controlling all the task in the computer is performed according to the instruction from control unit.
iii) Set of registers:-
A set of registers is a small and temporary memory location present in cpu. CPU contains multiple numbers of registers It actually the holds the memory address of the data and instructions. The different registers used are MAR, IR, PC,I/p register , AR etc.
i) ALU( Arithmetic and Logical Unit)
It performs arithmetical and logical operations. According to the instructions from control unit arithmetic operation includes +-*/mod(%),^ etc and the logical operation includes <,> <=, >= 1=or <> and,or,not etc. This unit is responsible for processing or executing or calculating the inputs for generating the outputs.
ii) CU(Controls Unit)
It is the main control center of the computer. It performs task of controlling all the components including hardware and software and their activities uses control signal for controlling all the task in the computer is performed according to the instruction from control unit.
iii) Set of registers:-
A set of registers is a small and temporary memory location present in cpu. CPU contains multiple numbers of registers It actually the holds the memory address of the data and instructions. The different registers used are MAR, IR, PC,I/p register , AR etc.
Magnetic Memory
Magnetic memory uses properties of magnetic for storing data. It is the first technology used for storing data. Many magnetic memories are not used at present. However hard disk is still the most popular storage device. It is one of the magnetic memory. The storing surface of magnetic memory is made by metal or plastic. This surface is coated by magnetic oxide. According data storing surface magnetic memory can be magnetic disk, magnetic tape and magnetic drum.
I) Magnetic drum:- It was used in 1st and 2nd generation of computers. It used cylindrical drum made by metal.l The outer side of the drum used for storing data. The srorage capacity of this device was in the range of few KB to MB.
II) Magnetic Tape:- magnetic tape contents this plastic ribbon coated by magnetic oxide. Data stored one side of ribbon. It is a sequencial access memory so the average data read write speed will be slower. It is highly reliable so ti is mainly use for storing backup, audiovidio file etc. It requireds magnetic tape drive for its readwrite operation. It is use in different storage capacity like 100MB, 250MB, 512MB,1GB,2GB,4GB,10GB,10GB and 20GB. The width of ribbon also varies like one inch, 1/2 inch, 1/4 inch,8mm, 4mm. The typical lenth of magnetic tape is 2400 feet.
III) Magnetic disk:- Magnetic diskk contents multiple circular disk made by metal or plastic. The circular disk rotates during readwrite process. The circular disk is divided into circular areas having common centre. This circular areas is known as track. Tracks are further divided into small area known as sector., Data are stored in the sectors. Some of the magnetic disk memories used are:-
Floppy disk
Hard disk
Winchester disk
Zip disk
Jazz disk
Super disk
I) Magnetic drum:- It was used in 1st and 2nd generation of computers. It used cylindrical drum made by metal.l The outer side of the drum used for storing data. The srorage capacity of this device was in the range of few KB to MB.
II) Magnetic Tape:- magnetic tape contents this plastic ribbon coated by magnetic oxide. Data stored one side of ribbon. It is a sequencial access memory so the average data read write speed will be slower. It is highly reliable so ti is mainly use for storing backup, audiovidio file etc. It requireds magnetic tape drive for its readwrite operation. It is use in different storage capacity like 100MB, 250MB, 512MB,1GB,2GB,4GB,10GB,10GB and 20GB. The width of ribbon also varies like one inch, 1/2 inch, 1/4 inch,8mm, 4mm. The typical lenth of magnetic tape is 2400 feet.
III) Magnetic disk:- Magnetic diskk contents multiple circular disk made by metal or plastic. The circular disk rotates during readwrite process. The circular disk is divided into circular areas having common centre. This circular areas is known as track. Tracks are further divided into small area known as sector., Data are stored in the sectors. Some of the magnetic disk memories used are:-
Floppy disk
Hard disk
Winchester disk
Zip disk
Jazz disk
Super disk
Cache Memory
It is a small high speed and expensive memory present in between RAM and EPU.
The working speed of CPU is increasing day by day but the speed of its of its data provider(RAM) has fnot increased significantly. Cache is used in between these two devices to balance their speed and increased overall speed.
When CPU requireds any data or instruction, it searches them in the cache and used from the cache. its searches in the RAM. If the required contains are not available in the cash. The condition in which CPU finds data in the cache is known as hit and reverse condition is know as miss. The ratio of hit by miss impresent computer is arround 9:1.
Cache stores most frequently requirds data and instructions different levels of cache like L1,L2 and L3 are defined qand use to increase the processing speed. L1(level1) stores most frequently required data, L2(level two)f stores comparitevely less frequently used data and so on. When CPU frequireds any data its for searches the data in L1 cache then in L2 if not found L1 and similarly L3 and RAM.
The working speed of CPU is increasing day by day but the speed of its of its data provider(RAM) has fnot increased significantly. Cache is used in between these two devices to balance their speed and increased overall speed.
When CPU requireds any data or instruction, it searches them in the cache and used from the cache. its searches in the RAM. If the required contains are not available in the cash. The condition in which CPU finds data in the cache is known as hit and reverse condition is know as miss. The ratio of hit by miss impresent computer is arround 9:1.
Cache stores most frequently requirds data and instructions different levels of cache like L1,L2 and L3 are defined qand use to increase the processing speed. L1(level1) stores most frequently required data, L2(level two)f stores comparitevely less frequently used data and so on. When CPU frequireds any data its for searches the data in L1 cache then in L2 if not found L1 and similarly L3 and RAM.
Wednesday, January 19, 2011
Dimensions of communication
The dimension of communication relates to the structures procedures and modalities applied for the internal communication. Organizational communication and its a system is guided by hierarchy status and the authority delegated to the employees in multiple level. So, it merely refers to the system of communication that takes place between senior management,middle level management and lower level management. This three different levels of management are co ordinates through three different intersecting lines of communication such as vertical, horizontal and diagonal etc. These intersections of communication lines formulate four major dimensions of organizational.
Four major dimensions of organizational commjunication
a) Down stream commuinication
b) Upstream communication
c) Horizontal communication
d) Crosswise communication
Down Stram communication
It refers to the procedure of organizational communication controll by senior as well as executive management in matters of policy making and planning.In addition,the executive level management remain quit equtomous in every organizational activities without taking hold of middle and lower level management. For this downstream communication is consider to be more autocratic and dectatorial in nature. Followings are the basic features fo downstream communication.
- autocratic leadership
- Unilateral communication structure
- Cloedoor policy
_ Lack of empowerment and participations of sub-ordinate management
_ Sub-ordinate management
- Registens to compliance
- Filtering and distortion
- Group conflicts and managerial hazards
Merits
1. Effective controlling and discipline
2. Monetering evaluiation of activities
3. Strict chain of command and progress analysis
4. Speedy decisions and problem solving
5. Transparency and fairness in activities
Upstream communication
It idealises the form of communication in which sub-ordinate management is granted with freedom to communicate and actively involve in organizational acivity.This approach of communication emerged during 1950s as a policy of liberal management.Consequently,the lower level management is empowerment for effective planning,decision making and implementaion. This is the reason why upstream communication is consider to ve more domocratic and liberal in managerial approach.
The relationship between senior and sub-ordinate management jis facilitated and co-ordinated by a mediator called 'ombuds person'. An ombuds person is an individual or team which authorized to coordinate relation as well as work further welfare of sub-ordinates and organization. Thus followings are the major roles of ombuds persons.
1. Facilitation between senior and subordinate management.
2. Create publicity and awareness
3. Bridging and negotiating the distance between top and middle level management.
4. Evaluation,update and monitor the job performance.
5. Controlling and managing the sub-ordinate group.
6. Team co-ordination and leadership.
7. Rapport building,reporting and upgrading senior management.
Horizontal Communication
It refers to a linear communicative relationship exclusively limited among the similar level or groups of management. Popularly known as straight line communication. It relates to the communication between the employees holding similare status, position and hierarchy in organization structure. In this regard horizontal communication builds into uniformity and homogenity among the senior co-workers and sub-ordinate level working groups. Following are the major highlights of horizontal communication.
Four major dimensions of organizational commjunication
a) Down stream commuinication
b) Upstream communication
c) Horizontal communication
d) Crosswise communication
Down Stram communication
It refers to the procedure of organizational communication controll by senior as well as executive management in matters of policy making and planning.In addition,the executive level management remain quit equtomous in every organizational activities without taking hold of middle and lower level management. For this downstream communication is consider to be more autocratic and dectatorial in nature. Followings are the basic features fo downstream communication.
- autocratic leadership
- Unilateral communication structure
- Cloedoor policy
_ Lack of empowerment and participations of sub-ordinate management
_ Sub-ordinate management
- Registens to compliance
- Filtering and distortion
- Group conflicts and managerial hazards
Merits
1. Effective controlling and discipline
2. Monetering evaluiation of activities
3. Strict chain of command and progress analysis
4. Speedy decisions and problem solving
5. Transparency and fairness in activities
Upstream communication
It idealises the form of communication in which sub-ordinate management is granted with freedom to communicate and actively involve in organizational acivity.This approach of communication emerged during 1950s as a policy of liberal management.Consequently,the lower level management is empowerment for effective planning,decision making and implementaion. This is the reason why upstream communication is consider to ve more domocratic and liberal in managerial approach.
The relationship between senior and sub-ordinate management jis facilitated and co-ordinated by a mediator called 'ombuds person'. An ombuds person is an individual or team which authorized to coordinate relation as well as work further welfare of sub-ordinates and organization. Thus followings are the major roles of ombuds persons.
1. Facilitation between senior and subordinate management.
2. Create publicity and awareness
3. Bridging and negotiating the distance between top and middle level management.
4. Evaluation,update and monitor the job performance.
5. Controlling and managing the sub-ordinate group.
6. Team co-ordination and leadership.
7. Rapport building,reporting and upgrading senior management.
Horizontal Communication
It refers to a linear communicative relationship exclusively limited among the similar level or groups of management. Popularly known as straight line communication. It relates to the communication between the employees holding similare status, position and hierarchy in organization structure. In this regard horizontal communication builds into uniformity and homogenity among the senior co-workers and sub-ordinate level working groups. Following are the major highlights of horizontal communication.
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